This might also be interesting for you: Sending text messages with light signals

Closely related to this article: Error detection during data transmission

Also relevant: Precise Timer in C for data transfer

List of components

• 2x Raspberry Pi 4
• 2x 5V Solar cell
• 2x 5V Laser diode
• Jumper cables
• 3D printer
• Filament
• 2x 5V Fan
• NPN Transistor
• 2x ADC Board with a LM393 dual comparator

Wiring

Unlike the wiring in the last article, where text messages were sent from a Pi to an Arduino via light signals ( Link: https://nerd-corner.com/sending-text-messages-with-visible-light-communication/ ), there is now no defined receiver and no defined transmitter. Instead, two identical stations are set up that can both send and receive data.

For this reason, the Raspberry Pi’s are connected to both a 5V laser and a 5V solar cell. For the laser the GPIO18 pin was chosen, which corresponds to pin 1 in the “wiringPi” library. The “wiringPi” library is used in the program code. Directly below GPIO18 is a ground, which is connected to the negative pole of the laser.

The solar cell provides a corresponding voltage value depending on the light intensity. But since the digital pins of the Raspberry Pi can only recognize 1 and 0, the analog value of the solar cell must be converted into a digital value with the help of a comparator. The process is explained in more detail in the section “ADC Board with an LM393 Comparator”. For the wiring, the plus and minus pole of the solar cell is connected to the plus and minus contacts of the ADC board. Then the ground of the ADC board is connected to a Raspberry Pi ground and for the power supply the plus pole of the ADC board is connected to 5V of the Pi. The D0 pin of the ADC board provides the digital value 0 or 1, depending on the light intensity of the solar cell. I connected this pin to GPIO17, which corresponds to pin 0 in the “wiringPi” library.

Since I noticed that the Pi gets very hot during operation, I connected a fan. So that the fan is not permanently in operation, which would have a negative effect on the performance of the laser, the fan can be switched on and off by a NPN transistor. Connect the positive pole of the fan directly to a 5V pin of the Raspberry Pi and the negative pole of the fan to the emitter of the NPN transistor. The collector of the transistor is connected to a ground of the Pi. To switch the fan on and off via the transistor, the transistor base is connected to a GPIO pin. For example I chose GPIO27 (corresponds to pin 2 in the “wiringPi” library). In the following table the pins of the Pi are compared to the numbering of the “wiringPi” library.

ADC Board with a LM393 camparator

The solar cell returns a voltage value depending on the light intensity. Unfortunately the Raspberry Pi has no analog pins to read this voltage value. Therefore the analog signal has to be converted into a digital signal. This is possible with the help of the LM393 comparator. The comparator is often used on ADC boards. Here I simply replaced the original sensor (it was a photoresistor) through a solar cell. With the help of a potentiometer the comparator can be adjusted. That means, as soon as the voltage value of the solar cell, which depends on the light intensity, exceeds the adjusted value of the potentiometer, a digital 1 is measured, otherwise a digital 0.

Structure of the data frame

The data frame for sending the text messages using visual light communication (Link: https://nerd-corner.com/sending-text-messages-with-visible-light-communication/ ) consisted of a preamble, the length of the text message, the text content and the cyclic redundancy check. However, to be able to send all kinds of data instead of text messages, the file name, the file extension, the total number of packets and the number of the current packet must be specified instead of the length of the text message. Then the data content and the code of the cyclic redundancy check can be added.

Software code for data transfer via VLC

Basically, the receiver and sender scripts from the previous project on sending text messages using visual light communication (link: https://nerd-corner.com/de/textnachrichten-mittels-lichtsignale-senden-pi-zu-arduino/ ) were further developed and combined into one single script. Which is applied on both Raspberry Pi’s. For example, a “ReadFile” and “WriteFile” function was added, which can read files and combine and save received data packets to a file. The program was written in C again, because a high speed of data transfer should be achieved. Details about precise programming in C for fast data transfer are given in this article: https://nerd-corner.com/how-to-program-a-highly-precise-timer-in-c-for-linux/ .

The complete software code for data transfer using VLC can be downloaded at the end of the article. The core of the program is again a state machine with the help of which can be selected whether data should be sent or received. In addition, the program automatically turns on the fan when no data transfer is taking place. Important: When compiling please do not forget the “wiringPi” library and the “math.h” library! The command is: “gcc -o transceiver transceiver.c -lwiringPi -lm”.

while(1)
    {
        digitalWrite (2, HIGH);
        printf("Press the R button for Receiver Mode or any other key for Sender Moden");
        scanf(" %c",&mode);
        
        if (mode=='R'||mode=='r')
        {
            digitalWrite(2,LOW);
            modeReceiver=true;
        }
        
        if (mode!='R'&&mode!='r')
        {
            digitalWrite(2,LOW);
            modeReceiver=false;
            
            char dataName[NAME_MAX];
            char dataExtension[NAME_MAX];
            
               
            printf("n Name of file WITHOUT extension: ");
            scanf("%s",dataName);

            printf("n Extension: ");
            scanf("%s",dataExtension);

            if (read_file(dataName, dataExtension, file_content) != OK)
            {
                printf("File read error, size exceeds array sizen");
                return -1;
            }
            BuildDataFrame(dataName, dataExtension, file_content);
        }
        
        
        
        while(modeReceiver)
        {
            gettimeofday(&tval_after, NULL);
            timersub(&tval_after, &tval_before, &tval_result);
            double time_elapsed = (double)tval_result.tv_sec + ((double)tval_result.tv_usec/1000000.0f);
            
            while(time_elapsed < 0.001)
            {
                gettimeofday(&tval_after, NULL);
                timersub(&tval_after, &tval_before, &tval_result);
                time_elapsed = (double)tval_result.tv_sec + ((double)tval_result.tv_usec/1000000.0f);
            }
            gettimeofday(&tval_before, NULL);
            
            int data = digitalRead(0);
            
            
            switch (state)
            {
                case 0:
                    //looking for preamble pattern
                    synchro_Done=false;
                    LookForSynchro(data);
                    
                    if (synchro_Done==true)
                    {
                        state=1;
                    }
                    break;
                    
                case 1:
                    //receive the actual data
                    receiveData_Done=false;
                    senderState=false;
                    ReceiveData(data);
                    
                    if(receiveData_Done&&senderState==false)
                    {
                        state=0;
                    }
                    if(senderState==true){
                        senderState=false;
                        state=0;
                        modeReceiver=false;
                        }
                    break;
                  
            }
            
        }
    }

Housing

In order to be able to hold the components in place, a housing was constructed in CAD. This also has the advantage that no complicated alignment of the lasers and the solar cells is necessary for the data transmission. For beginners, TinkerCAD is suitable for housing design. TinkerCAD is free and can be used directly in the browser. Alternatively, the STL files for the 3D printer can also be downloaded here.

The housing for data transfer via VLC has an opening for the solar cell and the laser. In addition, an exhaust vent for the fan was constructed and space was also left free for a Raspberry Pi housing. The following picture shows the installation of the components.

Conclusion about data transfer via VLC

The existing system for sending text messages by means of visual light signals was further developed so that all types of data can now be sent and received. The system works amazingly successfully. It is very robust and achieves a data rate of 1 kbps to 10 kbps. All incoming data packets can be directly assigned due to the intelligent structure of the data frame. Only an acknowledgement signal would be a useful addition. Such a signal would be a feedback from the receiver to the sender to inform the sender that all packets have arrived, or possibly a certain packet was faulty and must be sent again.

Also interesting for the future would be to investigate other types of modulation. In particular, I would like to explore color shift keying, which is specifically designed for visual light communication, and compare the resulting data rates.

Download files:

• Softwarecode Transceiver
• STL files housing
• Pi Case with free pins (Creative Common License from Thingiverse)

The post Upgrade: Data transfer via VLC and LiFi – Pi to Pi transfer appeared first on Nerd Corner.

In the following is an explanation why the library “sys/time.h” was used, as well as a code example with subsequent explanation. This code example is very well suited for bit-wise data transmission in communication technology.

This might also be interesting for you: How to program a highly precise Arduino Timer

List of components

• Linux operating system (for example Raspberry Pi)
• Editor for C – Programming

The library „sys/time.h“

Functions like “usleep()” or “nanosleep()” would stop the complete program. For simple applications this might be sufficient, but for my purposes this was too imprecise. I wanted a timer that really works exactly in a 1 ms or 0.1 ms cycle. So instead of “usleep()” or “nanosleep()” another solution was chosen. The library “sys/time.h”. This library is able to read and compare the current “System Clock Time”.

Code example for a precise timer in C

#include <sys/time.h>

int main()
{
    struct timeval tval_before, tval_after, tval_result;
    int counter=0;
    bool stop=false;
   
    gettimeofday(&tval_before, NULL);
    while(stop!=true)
    {
        gettimeofday(&tval_after, NULL);
        timersub(&tval_after, &tval_before, &tval_result);
        double time_elapsed = (double)tval_result.tv_sec + ((double)tval_result.tv_usec/1000000.0f);
        
        while(time_elapsed < 0.001)  //1ms; you can change your desired time interval here
        {
            gettimeofday(&tval_after, NULL);
            timersub(&tval_after, &tval_before, &tval_result);
            time_elapsed = (double)tval_result.tv_sec + ((double)tval_result.tv_usec/1000000.0f);
        }
        gettimeofday(&tval_before, NULL);
        
        if (counter==10000)
        {
            stop=true;
        }
            
        else 
        {
            counter++;
        }
    }
    return 0;
}

Explanation of the code example:

A function “gettimeofday” writes the current system time into the variable “tval_before”. A While loop will then be executed until the actual task is completed.

Within the While loop the system time is stored again into a variable “tval_after”. Then the time difference between “tval_after” and “tval_before” is measured and stored in “tval_result”.

The next step of the timer in C is not immediately obvious: “tv_result” consists by definition of 2 parts. On the one hand a seconds part “.tv_sec” and on the other hand a microseconds part “.tv_usec”. This microsecond part has to be divided by one million to get the value in seconds. Afterwards, the microsecond part can be added to the second part.

The added value is called “time_elapsed”. If this value is less than one millisecond, another inner While loop is opened, which recalculates the value for “time_elapsed” until exactly 1 ms has passed. Afterwards, the value for “tval_before” is redefined using the “gettimeofday” function.

Since exactly 1 ms has passed at this point, the timer can now perform its actual operation. In this simple code example the variable “counter” is incremented by 1. That means for each interval step (in the code example 1 ms) the counter increases by 1. As soon as a fixed value for counter was reached the program stops. In this case the defined value is 10000. Then the While loop will be terminated. But this part of the code can be easily changed for your own purposes.

My measurements with an oscilloscope detected an exact frequency of 1 ms, even 0.1 ms was measured exactly. This code example is therefore also very suitable for an exact data transmission in the communication technology.

Download files

• Downloadfile Timer in C

The post How to program a highly precise timer in C for Linux appeared first on Nerd Corner.

This might also be interesting for you: How to control an Arduino via Bluetooth

List of components

• Arduino Uno
• LED
• 220 Ohm resistor
• Wires
• Breadboard

What is a timer actually?

A timer is basically nothing else than a certain register in the microcontroller, which is increased (or decreased) continuously by 1 under hardware control. Instead of coding instructions in the program that are executed regularly and increment a register by 1, the microcontroller does this all by itself!

This becomes useful, if an action is executed at certain counter values. One of these ‘certain counts’ is for example the overflow. The count register of a timer can not be incremented arbitrarily long. E.g. the highest count that an 8-bit-timer can reach is 2^8 – 1 = 255. The next incrementing step is not 256, instead an overflow occurs, which makes the timer become 0 again. This is the magic! We can configure the controller so that an interrupt is triggered when the timer overflow occurs. We can write code in the Arduino program what should happen in case of an interrupt. For example, we can make an LED light up or query a certain sensor value.

Arduino Uno Microcontroller ATMEGA328P

The ATMEGA328P microcontroller is the heart of the Arduino Uno board. (ATTENTION: The Arduino Mega e.g. has a different microcontroller!) The ATMEGA328P microcontroller has 3 timers (datasheet) which are partly used in Arduino functions and/or partly in libraries. Overwriting the timer registers can therefore lead to complications with existing timer functions like millis(), micros() or delay() and should be used with caution. The 3 timers are Timer0 (8Bit), Timer1 (16Bit) and Timer2 (8Bit).

• 8 Bit-Timer0: used for functions millis(), micros(), delay() and for PWM at pin D5 and D6
• 16 Bit Timer1: Use e.g. for the Servo, VirtualWire and TimerOne library and for PWM at pin D9 and D10
• 8 Bit Timer2: Used for function tone() and for PWM at pin D3 and D11

How to vary the clock speed?

The system clock of the Arduino Uno is 16 MHz (CPU frequency). This means Timer0, Timer1 and Timer2 increase 16 million times per second. For example, the 8 bit timers count from 0 to 255 each time. At 256 an overflow occurs and the timers start again from 0. This means 16000000/256 = 62500 overflows per second (62.5kHz clock rate). This is likely too fast for most timer applications!

Therefore there is a trick to slow down the clock rates. You use a so-called prescaler. A prescaler can be set to the values 1, 8, 64, 256 or 1024. It allows you to divide the system clock (16MHz) by the selected factor and set a lower clock rate for the timers. For example, a prescaler of 1024 would increase the timer registers by 1 only at the 1024th system clock pulse. This would be 16000000/1024=15625 increments per second and thus with an 8 bit timer 15625/256= 61.035 overflows per second (~61 Hz clock rate of the timer).

Practical example LED should light up with 50Hz

In the following, the triggering of Arduino Timer Interrupts is shown with the 16-bit timer1. With this a LED should light up in a 50 Hz cycle. Schematic, Arduino code and pictures are also included. (The procedure for the 8 bit timer0 and timer2 is analog.) For the time controlled pulse you need the so called “CTC Mode”.

In CTC mode (“Clear Timer on Compare Mode”) the counter is cleared when the value of the counter (TNCT1) matches either the value of the OCR1A register or the value of the ICR1 register (in our case OCR1A). So the OCR1A register determines the maximum value of the counter and thus its resolution.

The 16 Bit Timer1 needs the following registers

• Timer Counter Register 1: TCNT1
• Output Compare Register A: OCR1A
• Timer Counter Control Register A: TCCR1A
• Timer Counter Control Register B: TCCR1B
• Timer/Counter Interrupt Mask Register: TIMSK1
• (For Timer0 and Timer2 the corresponding registers would be TCNT0 and TCNT2, respectively)

Calculate the OCR1A register for Arduino Timer Interrupts

The value of the OCR1A register depends on the desired interrupt frequency and the selected prescaler. The following formula applies:

We put our specifications into the formula:

• CPU frequency Arduino Uno: 16.000.000 Hz
• Desired interrupt frequency: 50 Hz (= 20 ms period duration)
• Possible prescaler: 1, 8, 64, 256 or 1024

Calculation example with Prescaler 1024:
OCR1A= (16.000.000 / (1024 * 50)) – 1 = 311,5

Calculation example with Prescaler 8:
OCR1A= (16,000,000 / (8 * 50)) – 1 = 39,999

ATTENTION: The OCR1A value must be less than 65.536 (2^16 )!

Therefore a prescaler 8 can NOT reach 10Hz interrupt frequency:
OCR1A= (16.000.000 / (8 * 10)) – 1 = 199.999

The value 199.999 is larger than the register with 65.536, therefore another prescaler must be used to reach 10 Hz

Instead a prescaler 64 for 10 Hz interrupt frequency:
OCR1A= (16.000.000 / (64 * 10)) – 1 = 24.999

If a Timer1 interrupt is now triggered, the program flow jumps to an interrupt service routine to be created “ISR(TIMER1_COMPA_vect)”. (See Arduino Code)

Bit combination for the desired prescaler

Arduino Timer Interrupts code for 50 Hz frequency

void setup() {

  pinMode(11,OUTPUT);  //LED pin (to blink in 50Hz frequency)
  
//START TIMER SETUP
//TIMER SETUP for highly preceise timed measurements 

  cli();//stop all interrupts

  // turn on CTC mode
  TCCR1A = 0;// set entire TCCR1A register to 0
  TCCR1B = 0;// same for TCCR1B
  TCCR1B |= (1 << WGM12);

  // Set CS11 bit for prescaler 8
  TCCR1B |= (1 << CS11); 
  
  //initialize counter value to 0;
  TCNT1  = 0;
  
  // set timer count for 50Hz increments
  OCR1A = 39999;// = (16*10^6) / (50*8) - 1  
  
  // enable timer compare interrupt
  TIMSK1 |= (1 << OCIE1A);
  
  sei();//allow interrupts
  //END TIMER SETUP
}



ISR(TIMER1_COMPA_vect) {//Interrupt at frequency of 50 Hz
 //write your timer code here

 digitalWrite(11,HIGH);
 delay(15);
 digitalWrite(11,LOW);
}




void loop() {

//when the timer is over, your program will stop in the loop function and jump to the timer code. 
//After the timer code it will jump back to the point where it left the loop function
}

The post Arduino Timer Interrupts – How to program Arduino registers appeared first on Nerd Corner.